Salvete omnes! I'm back again, and I'm once again dipping into the 12th century to look at a topic I've been researching for re-enactment recently, that of wax sealing. It's been mentioned many times this year, the 800th anniversary of the signing of the Magna Carta, that documents in this period were not actually signed as we would understand it. Instead, a wax seal would have been used to authenticate it. Its presence on a charter was solid proof that it was genuine, as each seal was unique to its owner. To produce the seal, a seal matrix was made out of lead or silver, bearing the design in reverse, would have been pressed into hot wax to leave a raised imprint.
There are several difficulties encountered in researching wax seals in this period. Since they're made out of wax (it's in the name really), they're rather delicate and frequently don't survive well over 800 years. Of the four surviving original Magna Cartas, only one retains its original seal, and it's so badly damaged as to be unrecognisable as anything more than a lump of wax. The other copies all bear the marks where the seals would have been attached, however, and are an empty witness to just how many seals have been lost over the years. Likewise, while metal seal matrices age better than their wax imprints, even fewer currently survive. This is because they were frequently destroyed on the death of their owner, or buried with them, in order to prevent forgeries. Fortunately, the one thing in favour of the researcher of wax seals in this period is the fact that all of the designs were remarkably similar to one another. During the 13th century, the designs on seals began to diversify significantly, but for the most part, the first signs didn't appear until late in my period. As a result, we can piece together the evidence of multiple seals and matrices to get an idea of how seals would have appeared in the 12th century.
 | There are two main types of seal to consider, those of the nobility and those of the highest members of the clergy. The seals of the nobility, taking their cue from the reverse of the Great Seal of England, always featured equestrian designs in a circular seal, which was usually around 4-5cm in diameter. It would have borne a legend around the edge, naming the seal's owner and following the form of 'SIGILLVM CHRISTOPHORI FILII ROBERTI' ('the seal of Christopher FitzRobert'). Episcopal seals, on the other hand, always featured a depiction of the owner in their vestments, standing in a vessica shaped seal (a pointed oval), with a legend around the edge naming the owner and his diocese. This would have followed the form of 'THOMASIUS DEI GRATIA ELIAE EPISCOPUS' ('Thomas, by the grace of God, Bishop of Ely'). Both types of seal matrix would typically have been made of lead or silver, and would have featured a loop at the top to hang it by, and a raised ridge along the back to hold it with when sealing. |
However, the ancient and most noble law of Sod states that it would be far too easy if all seals obeyed these rules. There were also, although it would seem less frequently, seals bearing strange creatures from bestiaries such as a cockatrice or a gryllus, or animal designs such as an eagle or a lion. These appear to have been most frequently used by the lesser nobility who didn't always follow the convention of equestrian seals.
Many who had a wax seal would also have had a more personal seal, and this would have been used on private correspondence and as a counterseal on the reverse of their official seal. They tended to be made from a reused intaglio from a Roman seal ring, and often without regard for its meaning (for example, Thomas Becket's personal seal depicted Jupiter). More rarely, they could instead feature a more personal image, such as Stephen Langton's depicting the murder of Becket. The intaglio would have been set into a silver housing which, like the owner's larger seal, would have borne an identifying legend around the edge, taking the form of 'S' HENRI DE LACEY' ('the seal of Henri de Lacey'), the S' being an abbreviation representing the word 'SIGILLVM' ('seal') due to space constraints.
In traditional imagery, seals were applied directly to the parchment, however this was rarely the case. Instead, they were appended onto the document, either onto a strip partially cut from the bottom of the charter, or onto a folded ribbon of parchment passed through slits to hold it. The former was less secure as the weight of the seal could tear the strip off, rendering it useless. whereas the latter was less prone to this. Securing the seal by passing the parchment ribbon through slits, either two or five made in a fold at the bottom of the document, appears to have been the more common method of attachment, however both appear in similar contexts. Different colours of wax were used for different types of seal. Rather than red wax, the seals of the nobility were usually made in a dark green wax, made by mixing finely ground charcoal into the melted beeswax. Episcopal seals, on the other hand, were nearly always made in natural beeswax, although at least one example survives in dark green wax (shown on the left).
I've now covered the vast majority of seals in England during the 12th century, however there were a few strange seals which deserve some attention. The seals of Papal legates were, in most regards, the same as those of the bishops and archbishops. However, while regular episcopal seals were made in natural beeswax for the most part, the seals of Papal legates were always made in dark green wax instead. In the same grouping as Papal legates comes the Papal bulla (hence the term for a Papal decree, a bull), issued by the Pope and made of lead. The bulla bore the simple design of a beaded circle surrounding the name of the Pope, following the form of 'INNOCENTIVS PP III' ('Pope Innocent III'). The PP is an abbreviation of 'PAPA' ('Pope'), and would bear a mark above it to show this.
 | The other unusual seal of interest it a rather important one, the King's Great Seal. Far larger than regular wax seals, it was also a double matrix seal, meaning that it bore images on both sides. To achieve this, there were two separate seal matrices - one bearing an image of the king seated on his throne, the other of the king mounted (it was from this that the seals of the nobility originally descended). Both sides bore legends, and between those they listed the full title of the king. The king's seal was appended to a document in neither of the ways discussed above, but on a braided length of light green silk ribbon, passed through the bottom of a document through three or four holes. As a double seal matrix, it would have required a seal press to apply it to a document. A disk of wax was placed into the first matrix, and the silk ribbon placed on top. A second disk of wax and the second matrix were then placed on top. Each of the matrices had around its edges four lugs, which were used to align them correctly. Finally, the seal press was tightened and pressure applied to produce the finished seal. |
And there you have it, nearly everything you could want to know about wax sealing in the 12th century (in all fairness, a pretty niche area of interest...). Following a summer of medieval research, I'm now back at uni properly, and so I'm once more immersed in the Classical world - expect a post on some such topic at some point soon. Until then, thank you for reading, and I hope you found it interesting!
Christopher N
Christopher N